Social contacts as a possible mechanism behind the relation between green space and health
Introduction
There is increasing attention and evidence for a positive relation between the amount of green space in the living environment and people's health and well-being. Several studies showed that more green space in the living environment of people is positively related to people's self-perceived health and leads to lower mortality risks (e.g. de Vries et al., 2003; Maas et al., 2006; Mitchell and Popham, 2007; Takano et al., 2002). However, little is known from these studies about the way in which green space exerts a beneficial effect on health. Several mechanisms could be underlying of which the following are most commonly mentioned: recovery from stress and attention fatigue, encouragement of physical activity and facilitation of social contact (de Vries et al., 2003; Groenewegen et al., 2006; Health Council of the Netherlands and Dutch Advisory Council for research on Spatial Planning, 2004; Maas et al., 2006). A large number of mainly experimental studies have produced strong evidence of the positive effect of nature on recovery from stress and attention fatigue (see e.g. Hartig et al., 2003, Hartig et al., 1991; Health Council of the Netherlands and Dutch Advisory Council for research on Spatial Planning, 2004; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). About other possible underlying mechanisms, such as social contacts, less is known. One review suggests green space might ‘have beneficial effects on health in so far as green space promotes social contact, for example through green meeting places in neighbourhoods, group-based nature activities (e.g. walking or willow pollarding) and gardening (shared gardens for the elderly and allotment gardens)’ (Health Council of the Netherlands and Dutch Advisory Council for research on Spatial Planning, 2004). In this study, we aim to investigate whether social contacts are a possible mechanism behind the relation between green space and health.
Several terms have been used in studies of the health-enhancing components of social relationships, such as social support, social network and social integration (Berkman et al., 2000). In this paper, we prefer to use the container term social contacts for all these terms. Social contacts can take many forms, including having a conversation, undertaking joint activities and paying visits. It is widely recognised that social relationships can influence a variety of health outcomes (see e.g. Berkman et al., 2000; Hawe and Shiell, 2000). Persons actively involved in communities or socially engaged with others tend to live longer (Kawachi et al., 1997) and are healthier both physically as well as mentally (see e.g. Kawachi and Berkman, 2000; Leyden, 2003).
Meeting opportunities are important for the development of local communities and social ties with neighbours because people have to be able to meet to establish relationships (Flap and Völker, 2005; Völker et al., 2007). Most contact between neighbours will occur in places like local, recreation facilities, schools, churches and parks (Kuo et al., 1998; Völker et al., 2007). The presence of trees and grass in common spaces, as opposed to barren common spaces, may attract residents to outdoor spaces, thereby leading to more frequent contacts among neighbours (Coley et al., 1997). Natural settings in common space are attractive because they can for example provide shadow, privacy and sound buffering from surrounding environments and they could have restorative effects (Coley et al., 1997; Hartig et al., 2003; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). Three closely related studies, performed by the same research group in an underprivileged area of Chicago, provide indication of a positive relation between the presence of green public facilities and social ties (Coley et al., 1997; Kuo et al., 1998; Kweon et al., 1998).
Coley et al. (1997) investigated the link between the use of outdoor public spaces and the presence, number and location of trees. They found that the presence of trees ‘consistently predicted greater use of outdoor spaces by all people, young and older, as well as groupings of people consisting of both youth and adults together’(Coley et al., 1997). Furthermore, they found that ‘the amount of time residents spent in common space was strongly predicted by the presence, location and number of trees’ (Coley et al., 1997). Kuo et al. (1998) took this line of research to the next level and studied whether greener neighbourhoods give rise to stronger neighbourhood social ties. They found that levels of vegetation predict both use of common spaces and the strength of neighbourhood social ties. Moreover, they found that use of common spaces mediated the relation between vegetation and neighbourhood social ties (Kuo et al., 1998).
Kweon et al. (1998) subsequently investigated the relationship between older adults’ exposure to nearby green common spaces and their level of social integration and attachment to local community. They found modest relationships between the use of green outdoor common space and the strength of neighbourhood social ties and sense of community for older adult residents of inner-city neighbourhoods.
Overall, these studies broadened our understanding of the importance of green space for neighbourhood social ties. However, it is unknown whether these results also apply to other settings. The studies were conducted in highly deprived urban areas where green elements were very scarce. The question is whether these relationships will also be found in other, richer and greener neighbourhoods.
Besides offering meeting opportunities green spaces can also promote a general sense of community. According to Kim and Kaplan (2004), sense of community of residents is strengthened when they feel at home (community attachment), have bonds with others, feel a sense of connection with the place (community identity) and have access for local exploration (pedestrianism). An empirical investigation showed that natural features and open spaces were the most important physical features which contribute to these four domains of sense of community. Natural features can promote a sense of community by increasing feelings of emotional attachment to a neighbourhood and people's identity with a place, which in turn could decrease feelings of loneliness and increases social support (Pretty et al., 1994; Prezza et al., 2001). Therefore, it is interesting not only to investigate the direct relation between green space and contact with neighbours but also with feelings of loneliness and social support.
A few studies have addressed the relation between green space and social contacts and sense of community. Flap and Völker (2005) showed that Dutch neighbourhoods with more open green space and recreational facilities, promote a sense of community. A study by Ewert and Heywood conducted in the US (1991) showed that undertaking activities in natural environments appeared to have stimulating effects on social contacts and social cohesion. The results of a study by Leyden (2003) show that people in Ireland in walkable neighbourhoods, which are among other things characterised by the availability of local parks, are ‘more likely to know their neighbours, to participate politically, to trust others, and to be involved socially’ (p 1550). On the other hand, in Western Australia, Wood et al. (2007) did not find a relation between distance to park from the respondents home and social capital.
Overall, there are several indications of a positive relation between green space and social contacts. The aim of this study is to investigate whether social contacts are a possible factor mediating the relation between green space and health.
More specifically, the following questions will be answered:
- 1.
Is the amount of green space in people's living environment related to people's health?
- 2.
Do people with more social contacts feel healthier?
- 3.
Is the amount of green space in people's living environment related to social contacts?
- 4.
Can the relation between green space and social contacts explain the relation between green space and health?
To gain more insight in the relation between social contacts and green space, we will analyse it for different subgroups. First of all, the relation will be analysed for different age groups to find out whether the relation is stronger for children and elderly, who have fewer resources to develop and maintain social ties that are further away from their homes. As a consequence of the more limited mobility of children and elderly, they rely more on nearby neighbours and their neighbourhood to support their needs (e.g. Kweon et al., 1998). Furthermore, the relation will be analysed for different social economic status groups to find out whether groups with a lower social economic status benefit more from green space in their living environment. Finally, we will investigate whether the relation is the same for urban and rural areas. Neighbourhoods in urban areas are more likely to be deteriorated, more often have to deal with vandalism, have a less strong local community and lower levels of social control (Flap and Völker, 2005; Steenbekkers et al., 2006). People living in rural areas more often socialize with their neighbours, less often experience nuisance from their neighbours (Steenbekkers et al., 2006) and have more social contacts in general (de Jong Gierveld, 1998). Overall, however, levels of deterioration are relatively low in the Netherlands.
Section snippets
Data
The data for this study were derived from two different datasets that were combined for this study. The health data and data on social contacts were collected within the framework of the second Dutch National Survey of General Practice (DNSGP-2), conducted in the Netherlands in 2001. The DNSGP-2 included a nationwide representative sample of 104 general practices with approximately 400,000 people on their list, who were a good representation of the Dutch population in terms of age, gender and
Relation between green space and health
We investigated the relationship between green space and health both with our total sample and with the subsample that provided data on social support and contact with neighbours.
We first investigated the relation for the percentage of green space in a 1 km radius around people's home. Subsequently, we investigated the relation for the percentage of green space in a 3 km radius around people's home. Overall, people with more green space in their living environment feel healthier, have experienced
Discussion
This study examined whether social contacts mediate the relation between green space and health. We started by investigating the relation between green space and different health indicators. Our study shows that people with more green space in 1 km radius around their home have better self-perceived health, have experienced fewer health complaints in the last 14 days and have a lower self-rated propensity for psychiatric morbidity. This is consistent with the studies by De Vries et al. (2003)
Conclusion
It is widely recognised that social relationships can influence several health outcomes. Furthermore, there is increasing evidence for a positive relation between green space and health and there are indications of a positive relation between the amount of green space in the living environment and social relationships. However, it was unknown whether social contacts are a possible factor mediating the relation between green space and health.
This study indicates that the amount of green space in
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by a grant from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research.
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